Overview
The Hua-Yi Yiyu (華夷訳語, “Glossary of Chinese and Barbarian Languages”) is a Chinese-Mongolian bilingual glossary compiled in 1382 (15th year of Hongwu) at the Hanlin Academy of the Ming Dynasty. Just 14 years after the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, the Ming court required practical Mongolian language skills for diplomacy, negotiation with envoys, and intelligence gathering regarding the Northern Yuan regime. The glossary was compiled by Huo Yuanjie (火源潔), a Mongol scholar serving as Lecturer at the Hanlin Academy, and contains Mongolian vocabulary transcribed in Chinese characters with Chinese translations, structured in two parts: zazi (classified vocabulary) and laiwén (example sentences).
This dictionary is one of the three fundamental sources for Middle Mongolian studies, alongside the Secret History of the Mongols and Menggu Ziyun (蒙古字韻), providing primary evidence for the phonology, lexicon, and grammar of late 14th-century Mongolian. It also serves as a historical document revealing the linguistic policies and diplomatic practices of a multi-ethnic state during the Yuan-Ming transition.
The Hua-Yi Yiyu remains significant today as evidence of the East Asian tradition of multilingual lexicography and the political and cultural value of linguistic competence.
Basic Information:
- Full Title: Hua-Yi Yiyu (華夷訳語, Hua-Yi Yiyu)
- Compilation Date: 1382 (15th year of Hongwu)
- Compiler: Huo Yuanjie (Lecturer at Hanlin Academy, Mongol scholar) and others
- Languages: Mongolian (Chinese character transcription) – Chinese
- Content: Zazi (vocabulary), Laiwén (example sentences, diplomatic documents)
- Extant Manuscripts: Berlin State Library, Toyo Bunko, Beijing Library, etc.
- Classification: Type A (Mongolian), Type B (various scripts), Type C (simplified version)
Historical Background
Historical Context
In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang founded the Ming Dynasty, and the Yuan court retreated to the northern steppe. However, the Northern Yuan regime persisted, requiring the Ming to maintain complex relations with Mongolian forces. Practical Mongolian language ability became urgent for understanding diplomatic documents, negotiating with envoys, and gathering intelligence.
The Compiler: Huo Yuanjie
Huo Yuanjie was a scholar from the Yuan period who served the Ming as a Mongol intellectual. Fluent in Mongolian, the official language of the Yuan Dynasty, he was appointed as Lecturer at the Hanlin Academy, an indispensable linguistic specialist for Ming diplomatic affairs. He compiled this dictionary in 1382, merely 14 years after the Ming founding.
Content and Structure
Overall Structure
Type A Hua-Yi Yiyu consists of two parts:
Part One: Zazi (Vocabulary)
Classified vocabulary covering astronomy, geography, human relations, official titles, implements, animals, and plants. Each entry comprises Mongolian transcribed in Chinese characters with corresponding Chinese translation.
Part Two: Laiwén (Example Sentences)
Practical diplomatic documents, letters, and conversational expressions. Each example follows a three-tiered structure:
- Mongolian transcribed in Chinese characters
- Word-by-word Chinese gloss (傍訳, pángyì)
- Complete Chinese translation (総訳, zǒngyì)
This three-tiered structure enabled learners to understand Mongolian word order and grammatical structure while mastering practical expressions.
Ishida’s Classification
Japanese orientalist Ishida Mikinosuke (石田幹之助, 1891-1974) classified Hua-Yi Yiyu into three types:
Type A – Mongolian glossary (Chinese transcription only)
Type B – Glossaries using original scripts (original script + Chinese transcription)
Type C – Simplified version (vocabulary only, no example sentences; Mongolian section called “Dádá Guǎn Yìyǔ” 韃靼館訳語)
Linguistic Value
Phonological Research
Chinese character transcription provides evidence for reconstructing late 14th-century Mongolian pronunciation. For example, adaq “foot” is recorded as 阿答黑, confirming the existence of word-final -q, which has been lost in modern Mongolian. The transcription simultaneously reflects the phonological system of contemporary Chinese (Ming Mandarin).
Lexical and Grammatical Research
Yuan-era Mongolian vocabulary is systematically recorded, essential for comparative studies with modern Mongolian and medieval Mongolian texts. Word-by-word glosses in example sentences clearly demonstrate Mongolian word order, case particles, and personal suffixes.
Contribution to Historical Studies
Example diplomatic documents and letters serve as valuable historical sources for understanding Yuan-Ming political and diplomatic relations, beyond their linguistic value.
Extant Manuscripts and Collections
Major Collections
Berlin State Library, Germany
Holds a 1407 (5th year of Yongle) edition printed by the Sìyí Guǎn (四夷館, Office of Interpreters)
Toyo Bunko, Japan
Holds manuscript copies cataloged as Hua-Yi Yiyu and Xu Hua-Yi Yiyu (續華夷訳語)
Beijing Library (now National Library of China)
Facsimile included in Beijing Tushuguan Guji Zhenben Congkan (北京図書館古籍珍本叢刊), Volume 6
Palace Museum, China
Holds multiple manuscript copies
Eurasian Context
Contemporary Parallel Glossaries
Hua-Yi Yiyu was part of the Eurasian-scale multilingual lexicography movement promoted by the Mongol Empire in the 13th-14th centuries.
East Asia:
- Zhiyuan Yiyu (至元訳語, Mongolian-Chinese, 1276)
- Koryŏ/Chosŏn: Sayŏgwŏn (司訳院) multilingual education facility (established 1276)
Central Asia and Iran:
- Zamakhshari’s Muqaddimat al-Adab (12th century, Mongolian added in 14th century)
- Ibn Muhannā’s Kitāb Ḥilyat al-Insān (Arabic-Persian-Turkic-Mongolian, 14th century)
Mamluk Sultanate:
- Kitāb Majmūʿ Tarjumān (Turkic-Arabic-Mongolian-Persian, 1343)
These demonstrate the political and economic value of linguistic competence in the multi-ethnic, multilingual administrative environment under Mongol rule.
The Three Foundational Texts for Middle Mongolian
Hua-Yi Yiyu is one of the three foundational sources for Middle Mongolian studies, alongside the Secret History of the Mongols (13th century) and Menggu Ziyun (14th century). Comparative study of these three texts enables tracking phonological changes, lexical development, and grammatical evolution in Mongolian from the 13th to 14th centuries.
Research History
Major Scholars and Contributions
Ishida Mikinosuke (Japan)
Established the Type A-B-C classification in “The So-called Type C Hua-Yi Yiyu: Dádá Guǎn Yìyǔ” (1944)
Kuribayashi Hitoshi (Japan)
Made detailed lexical research possible with Complete Index of Mongolian Words and Suffixes in Hua-Yi Yiyu (Type A) (2003)
M. Lewicki (Poland)
Comprehensive linguistic study in La langue mongole des transcriptions chinoises du XIVe siècle (1949, 1959)
E. Haenisch (Germany)
Philological and linguistic analysis in Sino-mongolische Glossare (1950s)
Ákos B. Apatóczky (Hungary)
Yiyu: An Indexed Critical Edition of the 16th Century Sino-Mongolian Glossary (2006)
Facsimile Editions and Research Literature
Major Facsimile Editions
Chinese Editions
- Hua-Yi Yiyu, Beijing Tushuguan Guji Zhenben Congkan, Vol. 6, Shumu Wenxian Press
- Wu Mandafu (annot.), Hua-Yi Yiyu, Inner Mongolia Culture Press, 1998
Western-Language Editions
- Mostaert, A. & Rachewiltz, I. de. Le Materiel Mongol du Houa i i iu 華夷訳語 de Houng ou (1389), 2 vols., Brussels, 1977, 1995
Major Japanese-Language Studies
- Ishida Mikinosuke, “The So-called Type C Hua-Yi Yiyu: Dádá Guǎn Yìyǔ,” Hoku-A Saihō, Vol. 2, 1944
- Kuribayashi Hitoshi, Complete Index of Mongolian Words and Suffixes in Hua-Yi Yiyu (Type A), Tohoku University Center for Northeast Asian Studies, 2003
- Ochi Sayuri, “On the Mongolian Language in Type C Hua-Yi Yiyu: Dádá Yìyǔ,” Kyoto University Linguistic Research, Vol. 23, 2004
Contemporary Significance
Digital Accessibility
Recent digitization has made Hua-Yi Yiyu accessible to researchers worldwide:
- National Library of China digital archive
- Tohoku University Center for Northeast Asian Studies index database
New Research Methods
Digitization has enabled corpus linguistic approaches (frequency analysis, collocation studies) and comparative linguistic research (language contact studies in Central and East Asia).
Related Articles
- Mongeō Ruikai – Chinese-Korean-Mongolian dictionary by Chosŏn Sayŏgwŏn
- Beilu Yiyu – 16th-century Mongolian-Chinese glossary
- Muqaddimat al-Adab – Central Asian multilingual dictionary
- Mongol Empire Language Policy – Multilingual administration under the empire
Last Updated: November 28, 2025
Author: Itako (itako999.com)
This article is part of the linguistics content at itako999.com/linguistics/